Best Investing & Trading Books of All Time

In this short guide, I will share some of my favourite books (amongst the 200+ that I have read over the years), so if you want to learn the basics & foundations of trading by yourself, these might come in handy.

However, do note that trading for real is very different from textbook examples. If you are new to trading, you will realise the difference once you start trading.

Good luck!

Best Investing And Trading Books
Square Shape TFW

Join our Beginner Workshop!

New to Trading? Make your first live trade today in this workshop!

Meet Spencer live for 2.5 hours of hands-on training! No prior experience required!

Learn all the basics of trading, and step-by-step guidance to make your first trade!

If you are serious about learning this skill on your own, make sure you finish all these books before you start putting your real money into the market. That was what I did when I started my trading career. This is just the bare minimum, and anything less is likely to end in failure. Even if you finish reading all these books, it is unlikely that you will be able to trade well.

There are many things which cannot be learnt from books, such as “market feel”, behavioral analysis, applied price action, and real trading psychology. These can only be learnt by paying “tuition fees” to the market (paper trading or demo trading is a waste of time), or learning from a real trader who has mastered these skills and get them to guide you. Investing in education is a small price to pay to help you avoid the costly mistakes in trading.

Best Books on Trading:

  • The Secrets of Economic Indicators – Bernard Baumohl
  • Freakonomics – Stephen Dubner & Steven Levitt
  • The Undercover Economist – Tim Harford
  • The Pocketbook of Economic Indicators – Manual Jesus-Backus
  • International Economics – Paul R. Krugman
  • Trader Vic – Methods of a Wallstreet Master – Victor Sperando
  • The Trader’s Guide to Key Economic Indicators – Richard Yamarone
  • One Up on Wall Street – Peter Lynch, John Rothchild
  • How to Make Money in Stocks – William O’Neil
  • The Alchemy of Finance – George Soros
  • Hot Commodities – Jim Rogers
  • Investment Biker – Jim Rogers
  • Technical Analysis from A to Z – Steve Achelis
  • Technical Analysis – Power Tools for Active Investors – Gerald Appel
  • Bollinger on Bollinger Bands – John Bollinger
  • Technical Analysis Demystified: A Self-Teaching Guide – Constance Brown
  • All About Technical Analysis : The Easy Way to Get Started – Constance Brown
  • Technical Analysis for the Trading Professional – Constance Brown
  • Fibonacci Analysis – Constance Brown
  • Mastering the Trade – John Carter
  • Trend following – Michael W. Covel
  • Trend Commandments – Michael W. Covel
  • The Complete Turtle Trader – Michael W. Covel
  • How I made $2,000,000 in the Stock Market – Nicolas Darvas
  • Understanding RSI – Edward Dobson, Roger Reimer
  • Integrated Pitchfork Analysis – Mircea Dologa
  • Technical Analysis of Stock Trends – Robert D. Edwards, John Magee
  • Entries and Exits – Alexander Elder
  • Trading for a Living – Alexander Elder
  • Sell and Sell Short – Alexander Elder
  • Come into my Trading Room – Alexander Elder
  • Way of the Turtle – Curtis Faith
  • Inside the Mind of the Turtles: How the World’s Best Traders Master Risk – Curtis Faith
  • The Master Swing Trader – Alan Farley
  • The Elliot Wave Principle – A. J. Frost, Robert R. Prechter Jr.
  • Truth of the Stock Tape & Wall Street Stock Selector – William D. Gann
  • 45 Years in Wall Street – William D. Gann
  • New Stock Trend Detector – William D. Gann
  • How to Make Profits in Commodities – William D. Gann
  • Trend Trading – Daryl Guppy
  • Snapshot Trading – Daryl Guppy
  • New Trading Systems and Methods – Perry Kaufman
  • Breakthroughs in Technical Analysis: New Thinking from the World’s Top Minds – David Keller
  • How to Trade in Stocks – Jesse Livermore
  • Fibonacci and Gann Applications in Financial Markets – George MacLean
  • The W.D. Gann Method of Trading – Gerald Marisch
  • Dynamic Trading – Robert C. Miner
  • High Probability Trading Strategies – Robert C. Miner
  • Candlestick Charting Explained – Gregory L. Morris
  • Technical Analysis of the Financial Markets – John J. Murphy
  • Intermarket Technical Analysis – John J. Murphy
  • How to Get Started in Active Trading and Investing – David Nassar
  • Japanese Candlesticks Charting Techniques – Steve Nisson
  • The Candlestick Course – Steve Nisson
  • Beyond Candlesticks: New Japanese Charting Techniques Revealed – Steve Nison
  • Timing the Trade: How Price and Volume Move Markets! – Tom O’Brien
  • The Secret Science of Price and Volume: Techniques for Spotting Market Trends, Hot Sectors, and the Best Stocks – Timothy Ord
  • Candlestick and Pivot Point Trading Triggers – John L. Person
  • Technical Analysis Explained – Martin J. Prings
  • The Visual Investor – Martin J. Prings
  • Martin Pring on Price Patterns – Martin J. Prings
  • Dow Theory for the 21st Century – Jack Schannep
  • Trade like Jesse Livermore – Richard Smitten
  • The Secret Code of Japanese Candlesticks – Felipe Tudela
  • New Concepts in Technical Trading Systems – J. Welles Wilder
  • Secrets for Profiting in Bull and Bear Markets – Stan Weinstein
  • Stock Market Technique, No 1 – Richard D. Wyckoff
  • Stock Market Technique, No 2 – Richard D. Wyckoff
  • Studies in Tape Reading – Richard D. Wyckoff
  • Wall Street Ventures & Adventures Thru 40 Years – Richard D. Wyckoff
  • How I Trade and Invest in Stocks and Bonds – Richard D. Wyckoff
  • R N Elliott’s Masterworks, the Definitive Collection – R. N. Elliott, Robert R., Jr. Prechter
  • Technical Analysis: The Complete Resource for Financial Market Technicians – Charles D.Kirkpatrick II, Julie R. Dahlquist
  • Ichimoku Charts: An Introduction to Ichimoku Kinko Clouds – Nicole Elliott
  • Practical Speculation – Victor Niederhoffer, Laurel Kenner
  • The Wall Street Waltz – Kenneth L. Fisher
  • Stock Market Wizards – Jack D. Schwager
  • The New Market Wizards – Jack D. Schwager
  • Millionaire Traders – Kathy Lien, Boris Schlossberg
  • The Battlefield for Investment Survival – G. M. Loeb
  • Fooled by Randomness – Nassim Nicholas Taleb
The Black Swan – Nassim Nicholas Taleb
  • The Education of a Speculator – Victor Niederhoffer
  • Liar’s Poker – Michael Lewis
  • Reading Price Charts Bar by Bar – Al Brooks
  • The Lexus and the Olive Tree – Thomas L. Friedman
  • The World is Flat – Thomas L. Friedman
  • Reminiscences of a Stock Operator – Edwin Lefevre
  • Trading in the Zone – Mark Douglas
  • The Disciplined Trader – Mark Douglas
  • Investment Psychology Explained – Martin J. Prings
  • Irrational Exuberrance – Robert J. Shiller
  • Beyond Greed and Fear – Hersh Shefrin
  • Trading Rules that Work: The 28 Lessons Every Trader Must Master – Jason Alan Jankovsky
  • Day Trading and Swing Trading the Currency Market: Technical and Fundamental Strategies to Profit from Market Moves – Kathy Lien
  • Bird Watching In Lion Country 2010 – Dirk Du Toit
  • Pairs Trading: Quantitative Methods and Analysis – Ganapathy Vidyamurthy
  • Quantitative Equity Portfolio Management – Ludwig B Chincarini, Daehwan Kim
  • Technical Traders Guide to Computer Analysis of Futures Market – Charles Le Beau, David Lucas
  • The Definitive Guide to Point and Figure – Jeremy Du Plessis
  • SteidMayer on Markets: Trading with Market Profile – SteidMayer J. Peter, Steven B. Hawkins
  • Quantitative Trading Systems, Practical Methods for Design, Testing, and Validation – Howard B. Bandy
  • Expert Advisor Programming – Andrew Young
  • Future Trend from Past Cycles – Brian Millard
  • Cloud Charts: Trading Success with the Ichimoku Technique – David Linton
  • A Random Walk Down Wall Street – Burton Malkiel

I will continue to add to this list as I discover and read more good books.

Feel free to recommend any books not on this list! Thanks!

Conclusion

I hope you have enjoyed this comprehensive list of trading books.

Now I’ll like to hear from you: what is your key take-away from this trading guide?

How many of these books have you read so far?

What is your favourite trading or investing book?

Do you have any good books of your own to recommend?

Let me know by leaving a quick comment below right now.

2018 09 17 15.11.29
100 replies
  1. 4621b7d5682f00ad36b40b4c73beee08
    Ali Husain says:

    I read Alchemy OF Finance by Soros a while ago. Going to read it again. I would suggest Buffett: The Making Of An American Capitalist by Roger Lowenstein. I read it 23 years ago. I found it a simpler guide to value investing than The Intelligent Investor by Graham.

    Reply
  2. 970a5cc6697c003c962ff04f8af330af
    Kalyani Raman says:

    I don’t have enough time to read through all the books. Can you maybe narrow down to the top 5 books that I should go through first before I go onto paper trading?

    Reply
    • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
      Spencer Li says:

      Thanks for your question. It really depends on what kind of topics or areas that you are looking to improve on, ie. money management, price patterns, indicators, price action, psychology, etc. But if time is limited on your side, then I would suggest you learn from these guides instead, because they are like a compilation of all the content I have read from hundreds of books.

      Reply
  3. C71f9145913ef7bd280bcfee41e38155
    Raymond Leslie says:

    I will appreciate if you can give a review or highlights of each book instead of the entire list. Then can decide which book to start with.

    Reply
    • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
      Spencer Li says:

      I think the core concepts and tools are still very relevant, but some of the strategies and trading parameters need updating, that is why we need to understand the principles, so that we can improve and formulate our own strategies that work for the current markets.

      Reply
      • 96ff3acc4351c027bb54e4a4f182abd5
        Rajesh Kumar says:

        There are many trainers out there who claimed to have “read so many books”. And when I see their review, they don’t really understand what they are talking about. That’s why I agree with Jenise if you can recommend books that are more relevant in today’s time.

        Reply
    • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
      Spencer Li says:

      I don’t think there are video versions of the full books, but on my Youtube channel, I have pretty comprehensive videos that cover all the main aspects of trading and investing.

      Reply
        • 86d8647c6dea81c1c18fdde191441d1c
          Wei Leong says:

          I think what he meant is that if you have free time, you can read the books. I don’t think its a must before trading.
          Nowadays, there are many people who just trade blindly or just follow what the top traders do.

          Reply
          • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
            Spencer Li says:

            It is a must to know what you’re doing, but the knowledge can come from anywhere – books, videos, online, mentor, etc.

            Reply
        • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
          Spencer Li says:

          The guides and videos will pull out the essential ideas and practical concepts which you will need to start trading, but if you want a more in-depth coverage on any particular topic, then you can consider reading the books as well!

          Reply
  4. 36163a0e597884245dce9eef52ca0f1f
    Xia says:

    You mention that reading a lot of books is bare minimum, and might not be useful at the same time. Then should we even bother to read as its a waste of time.

    Reply
    • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
      Spencer Li says:

      It depends on whether you can turn the book knowledge you acquire into practical trading strategies. If you can’t do that, then it will be a waste of time, but if you don’t read to acquire the knowledge, then how are you going to craft the strategies in the first place?

      Reply
      • B2f8cff1853f3bd0d5620e60d7d05623
        Dominic says:

        I totally agree. There is no point doing useless reading since we are reading to gain some form of advantage. If we can’t read to apply it in the real-world, then all the reading might be all wasted.

        Reply
  5. Fd8803aba4c1382892ba9e0f9a6f88ec
    Alex Domenic says:

    A Random Walk Down Wall Street by Burton Malkiel.

    Since this is the 10th edition. this speaks for itself. This book is a great first read for those starting a portfolio. Indexing, diversification, trends, bubbles, the value of patience coupled with time, and other core concepts are also covered in this book.

    Do consider reading it.

    Reply
  6. B5e64007a45950aab71e200403232a0a
    Albert Yeo says:

    What a pity. Mr John Bogle died on Jan. 16, 2019. His “The Little Book of Common Sense Investing: The Only Way to Guarantee Your Fair Share of Stock Market Returns” was an excellent book for me!

    Reply
  7. 3ce8762972967356d1a6d8a94640fca8
    Julius says:

    The Nature of Investing. Have you read this book before?

    The author has over 20 years in the field and has an interesting connection between natural laws and the manmade world of investment.

    In the long run, embrace sense of rigid adaptability versus short term fixes that inevitably snowball to bigger problems.

    Reply
    • 6fdf17b380c039a613a829203fc5d1f9
      Spencer Li says:

      The thing is the world of cryptocurrency changes so fast, so by the time a book gets published, the info is already outdated. So learning about it online might be better and more up-to-date.

      Reply
      • 3ce8762972967356d1a6d8a94640fca8
        Jia Hong says:

        Are there any books that covered how various markets that are affected from adverse events such as the recent Russia-Ukraine conflict?

        It will be good to know how markets should move in such events in advance.

        Reply
  8. 3ce8762972967356d1a6d8a94640fca8
    Jennifer says:

    The Total Money Makeover: Classic Edition: A Proven Plan for Financial Fitness

    Give it a read. Its useful for me.

    Reply
  9. 9843439c28831a0fd871fe6980ec612d
    Rita says:

    I’ve only read a few of these books, but I’m excited to tackle the rest. It’s always inspiring to see how much other people have read and get motivated to read more. Which ones are at the top of your list?

    Reply
    • 3f2f039339e7474525bcaf7bed0b8e8a
      Oyama Katsuo says:

      What’s the point of reading all these books if everyone has the same knowledge on how to beat the market? Then why aren’t there more professional traders despite reading and understanding all these books?

      Reply
  10. F635ba1dceaeed552c3e94f5b5f8d730
    Joseph says:

    Thanks Mr. Li, for all the compilation of these forex books, this is what i like to do more reading because reading is like discovery of hidden knowledge by others, i have found some of these books very good and full of knowledge on trading , please add more as you read,
    to other traders out there go to pdfroom.com to search for Mr. Li recommended books, you find some free downloading it there and read.
    God bless you all .

    Reply
  11. 78f934e765662d7ccecaac5cafc625cf
    Osmond Haynes says:

    My favorite trading book is “The Intelligent Investor” by Benjamin Graham. It has taught me a lot about value investing and how to analyze stocks. I would definitely recommend it to anyone interested in investing.

    Reply
    • 4bb08fc9bf0ff4d05bcf82ca83cb10a1
      Nigel Welch says:

      I agree with you on “The Intelligent Investor”. That book was a game changer for me as well. Another book that I found really helpful was “The Psychology of Trading” by Brett Steenbarger. It’s not about specific strategies, but more about the mindset and emotions involved in trading.

      Reply
    • 3f2f039339e7474525bcaf7bed0b8e8a
      Addison Fletcher says:

      I’ve heard great things about “The Psychology of Trading”. Another book that I really enjoyed was “Reminiscences of a Stock Operator” by Edwin Lefèvre. It’s a classic book that talks about the life and experiences of Jesse Livermore, one of the most successful traders in history.

      Reply
    • 9918dfe83b184a37b83fbf8243a77a37
      Clay Marshall says:

      I’ve read “Reminiscences of a Stock Operator” too and I really enjoyed it. Another book that I found really helpful was “The Little Book of Common Sense Investing” by John Bogle. It’s a great book for beginners who want to learn about passive investing and index funds.

      Reply
    • Efef6ec8acb3e2214fb7ce507b5d4d4c
      Blake says:

      I agree with you on “The Little Book of Common Sense Investing”. Another book that I would recommend is “Market Wizards” by Jack D. Schwager. It’s a collection of interviews with some of the most successful traders in the world and provides a lot of insight into their strategies and thought processes.

      Reply
    • B4ff1977c127de09100158f4936a63b7
      Jasper Perry says:

      I loved “Market Wizards” too! Another book that I would recommend is “One Up On Wall Street” by Peter Lynch. It’s a great book for beginners who want to learn how to invest in individual stocks and provides a lot of practical advice.

      Reply
    • 4a17cc9ada8a64754624bb873e498218
      Keith says:

      I agree with you on “One Up On Wall Street”. Another book that I would recommend is “The Four Pillars of Investing” by William Bernstein. It’s a comprehensive guide to investing that covers everything from asset allocation to risk management.

      Reply
    • B0311013e286e8700c3ef7d8d90e2c48
      Phil Love says:

      I’ve heard great things about “The Four Pillars of Investing”. Another book that I would recommend is “The Black Swan” by Nassim Nicholas Taleb. It’s a fascinating read that talks about the impact of rare and unpredictable events on financial markets.

      Reply
  12. 4bb08fc9bf0ff4d05bcf82ca83cb10a1
    Salvatore Trentini says:

    I’ve read about half of these books so far! Some of them were required reading for school, but others I picked up on my own.

    Reply
  13. C7d1815d263bcf363ff667f3a30b2cee
    Filza Obeid says:

    I have to give a shoutout to “The Little Book of Common Sense Investing” by John C. Bogle. It’s a great introduction to index investing and how to build a portfolio that will perform well over the long term.

    Reply
  14. 3f2f039339e7474525bcaf7bed0b8e8a
    Yi Qi says:

    For those interested in technical analysis, “Technical Analysis of the Financial Markets” by John J. Murphy is a must-read. It covers everything from charting patterns to market indicators.

    Reply
  15. 3c540a65b07ba2750398fab168f69099
    Nasma Ebrahimi says:

    “The Warren Buffett Way” by Robert G. Hagstrom is another great book for those interested in value investing. It provides a deep dive into Buffett’s approach to investing and how he has achieved such incredible success.

    Reply
  16. 104784f35d41f0e1de9c199d84d9f33d
    Udinesi says:

    My favorite trading book is “Market Wizards” by Jack Schwager. This book is a collection of interviews with some of the most successful traders in the world. It provides a lot of insight into the mindset and strategies of successful traders, and I think it’s a great resource for anyone who wants to improve their trading skills.

    Reply
  17. 4a17cc9ada8a64754624bb873e498218
    Geun Kyungsoon says:

    Another great trading book is “The Disciplined Trader” by Mark Douglas. This book emphasizes the importance of discipline and psychology in trading, and provides a lot of practical advice for managing emotions and developing a consistent trading plan.

    Reply
  18. 31a82475091ec43baecf23857f0ef847
    Tyler says:

    I highly recommend “The Outsiders” by William N. Thorndike. It’s a book about eight unconventional CEOs who achieved outstanding results by focusing on long-term value creation rather than short-term profits. The book provides a lot of valuable lessons about leadership and investing.

    Reply
  19. 9843439c28831a0fd871fe6980ec612d
    Bruno Pena says:

    “The Psychology of Money” by Morgan Housel is a relatively new book that has quickly become one of my favorites. It explores the psychological biases and emotional factors that influence our financial decisions, and provides a lot of practical advice for managing our money effectively.

    Reply
  20. 5faf081ad70f66db2276dd2b37e3a5df
    Reyhan Jaffer says:

    “Thinking, Fast and Slow” by Daniel Kahneman is not specifically an investing book, but it provides a lot of insight into the cognitive biases and heuristics that influence our decision-making. I think this book is a great resource for anyone looking to improve their decision-making skills, whether it’s in investing or other areas of life.

    Reply
  21. 31a82475091ec43baecf23857f0ef847
    Amanda Alvarado says:

    Honestly, I haven’t read any of these books yet. I’ve been meaning to get around to some of them, but I always end up getting distracted by other books. Which ones do you recommend I start with?

    Reply
  22. 343b384557c7089d131b9bd213ac11f1
    Abaasa Ben says:

    One of my favorite trading and investing books is “The Psychology of Trading” by Brett Steenbarger. It provides a deep insight into how psychology can impact the trader’s mindset and their success in the market. The book is divided into three sections that cover the psychological aspects of trading, the psychological strategies for trading success, and the psychological challenges that traders face.

    Reply
  23. 3c540a65b07ba2750398fab168f69099
    Zhao Song says:

    “The Art of Possibility” by Rosamund Stone Zander and Benjamin Zander is one of my favorite trading books. It is not a typical trading book but is a great resource for learning how to approach challenges with a positive and creative mindset. The authors provide practical tools and strategies to help traders shift their perspectives and achieve their goals.

    Reply
  24. 836bdd319efd9072171b3eeb0813fdd8
    Kimura says:

    My favorite trading book is “Trading in the Zone” by Mark Douglas. The book provides a comprehensive guide to developing a winning mindset for trading. It emphasizes the importance of discipline, patience, and emotional control in trading and teaches readers how to develop a winning attitude.

    Reply
    • 58858be42d7a86743b49e810282c5c06
      Oyama Katsuo says:

      I am actually not convinced about the psychology portion for trading? If I follow the trading rules, then my emotions are not in play. Then, I can just learn how to trade better.

      Reply
  25. 58d3537c1631c718c3f82b830f79aa26
    Saito Kei says:

    “Beating the Street” by Peter Lynch is one of my favorite investing books. The book provides practical advice on how to identify good investment opportunities and avoid common investing mistakes. Lynch’s approach to investing is straightforward and emphasizes the importance of doing your own research and sticking to your investment strategy.

    Reply
  26. 836bdd319efd9072171b3eeb0813fdd8
    Anthony Anderson says:

    “Security Analysis” by Benjamin Graham and David Dodd is a classic investing book that provides a detailed analysis of the principles of value investing. The book emphasizes the importance of analyzing financial statements and balance sheets and provides practical tools and strategies for identifying undervalued stocks. It’s a great resource for anyone interested in learning more about value investing.

    Reply
  27. 9843439c28831a0fd871fe6980ec612d
    Justine Stevenson says:

    Here are 5 books I will recommend:

    “The Psychology of Money” by Morgan Housel – This book provides a unique perspective on investing, focusing on the psychological aspects of money management rather than just technical analysis.

    “The Essays of Warren Buffett: Lessons for Corporate America” by Warren Buffett – This book is a collection of letters from Warren Buffett to his shareholders and provides insight into his investment philosophy.

    “Market Wizards: Interviews with Top Traders” by Jack D. Schwager – This book features interviews with some of the most successful traders in the world and provides valuable insights into their strategies and approaches.

    “One Up On Wall Street” by Peter Lynch – This classic book is a must-read for any investor, and provides a valuable perspective on investing in companies with strong fundamentals.

    “Security Analysis” by Benjamin Graham and David Dodd – This book is a classic in the field of value investing and provides a comprehensive guide to analyzing securities.

    Reply
  28. 4255d5544e224105d8f5124cdd619f17
    Alvin Lowe says:

    One of the learning points from some of the books I read is that technical analysis is a popular method for analyzing financial markets, and there are many different tools and techniques that traders use to make decisions.

    Reply
    • 9843439c28831a0fd871fe6980ec612d
      Grace says:

      For me, its fundamental analysis is also important in evaluating investment opportunities, and can involve analyzing economic indicators, company financials, and other factors that may impact market prices.

      Reply
    • 09874d2c6d96277893057380ea33c0f3
      Mona Warren says:

      Trading psychology is a critical component of successful trading, and books on this topic can help you develop the discipline and emotional intelligence needed to make smart investment decisions.

      Reply
    • 31a82475091ec43baecf23857f0ef847
      Todd says:

      The common learning theme is while there is no one “right” way to trade or invest, discipline, patience, and a commitment to ongoing learning and improvement are important traits for successful traders and investors.

      Reply
    • 09874d2c6d96277893057380ea33c0f3
      Jillian Jordan says:

      There are many different investment styles and approaches, and what works for one trader may not work for another. It’s important to find a style that aligns with your personality and risk tolerance.

      Reply
  29. 3f2f039339e7474525bcaf7bed0b8e8a
    Estelle says:

    One thing to keep in mind is that some of the books on this list are quite old and may not reflect the most up-to-date information or trends in the market. It is always a good idea to supplement your reading with current news articles and market updates to stay informed.

    Reply
  30. C74bb4d8bf3a8ca40d86cad13f2e303d
    Max Mullins says:

    Wow, that is quite a comprehensive list! These books cover a wide range of topics related to economics and finance, from economic indicators to technical analysis, and from trading strategies to the psychology of investing. Some of the authors on this list, such as Paul Krugman and Nassim Taleb, are well-known experts in the field, while others are lesser-known but still have valuable insights to offer.

    Reply

Leave a Reply

Want to join the discussion?
Feel free to contribute!

Leave a Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *